The effectiveness of a school-based planning program for first year students in secondary school: A cluster randomized controlled trial

• Iterative co-design led to the Planning of Schoolwork (PLOS) intervention • PLOS-extra offered individual modular skills training beyond the preventive class-based skills training PLOS-basic • Cluster RCT tested PLOS-extra vs. practice-as-usual in students with planning problems • No added benefit found for PLOS-extra over practice-as-usual on key outcomes • Findings reveal challenges in feasible school-based training despite co-design In secondary education, many students have difficulties planning their schoolwork. These difficulties may not only lead to short-term consequences such as lower grades, but also to long-term psychosocial, professional and financial challenges. To support students with planning problems, we developed a school-based program (Planning of Schoolwork (PLOS)) using an iterative development approach. PLOS includes two phases: PLOS-basic, a six-lesson preventive program with in-class skills training and PLOS-extra, a six-session, individual, modular skills training for students who still need support after PLOS-basic. This cluster randomized controlled trial compares the short- and long-term effects of PLOS-extra to practice-as-usual (PAU) with 213 first year students (aged 11-14, 78.9% male) who still had planning problems after PLOS-basic. Primary outcomes were homework problems and planning skills. Secondary outcomes included school motivation, classroom behavior, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviors and school grades. We found no significant short- or long-term between-group differences on either the primary or the secondary outcome measures. Some significant improvements over time were present for both the PLOS-extra and the PAU group. The lack of effects of PLOS-extra may be attributed to a natural improvement of planning skills, the moderate severity of planning problems in our sample or the design of the program. Furthermore, the schools faced challenges in securing the necessary resources to implement the program effectively. Although PLOS-extra was developed in collaboration with end-users, these challenges demonstrate the complexity of developing training programs that are feasible within the educational context. School professionals and policymakers must decide whether to invest time, effort and resources into implementing evidence-based planning programs or in developing and testing new programs that offer support throughout daily academic life.