Project-Based Learning in Higher Secondary Education in Afghanistan: Implementation Feasibility, Practices, and Contribution to 21st-Century Skills

Project-based learning (PBL) has been increasingly recognized as an effective pedagogical approach to fostering 21st-century skills, yet evidence from fragile and resource-constrained contexts remains scarce. This study examined the feasibility, implementation practices, and learning outcomes of PBL in Afghan higher-secondary education. Using a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, four schools (n = 125 students, 8–12 teachers) were purposively selected, with matched classes assigned to either a PBL intervention or traditional instruction. The intervention comprised a 6–8-week PBL unit emphasizing driving questions, milestone scaffolds, and public products, supported by teacher professional development. Quantitative results revealed that students in the PBL group significantly outperformed controls on post-tests after adjusting for baseline scores (F (1,122) = 7.85, p = .006, partial ?² = .06). Rubric-based assessments showed moderate effect sizes for collaboration (d = 0.59), communication (d = 0.52), and critical thinking (d = 0.46), with smaller gains in creativity (d = 0.40). Qualitative findings reinforced these results, highlighting enhanced student engagement, teacher role transformation from lecturer to facilitator, and skill development beyond academic content. However, resource limitations, exam-focused curricula, and parental concerns emerged as significant constraints. Integrating both data strands demonstrated strong convergence between quantitative outcomes and participant experiences, underscoring the potential of PBL to advance essential competencies under challenging conditions. The study contributes to extending PBL scholarship into fragile contexts, emphasizing the mediating role of scaffolding and contextual adaptation. Policy implications include integrating PBL-compatible assessments into national curricula, strengthening teacher professional development, and providing low-cost material supports. Despite limitations related to sample size, duration, and generalizability, this study offers actionable insights for improving Afghan secondary education and advancing regional discourse on innovative pedagogy.