Spatiotemporal distribution, sources and health risks of organophosphate flame retardants in household dust across 22 countries

Organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs), typical indoor pollutants, show as both environmentally persistent and bioaccumulation. Investigating their distribution in household dust (HD-OPFRs) and associated health risks is scientifically important for public health protection and evidence-based indoor environmental management. After systematic evaluation of 1180 documents, data of 1888 HD-OPFRs samples from 37 studies conducted in 22 countries were collected from 2007 to 2024. The sample-weighted concentrations were re-calculated from raw data including mean and sample size reported in each qualified paper. The pollution characteristics and spatio-temporal distribution covering nations were explored using the Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis H tests. Exploratory factor analysis and Spearman correlation analysis were used to investigate the common sources, and the hazard index and carcinogenic risk were evaluated for exposure pathways and health risks. The average global sample-weighted concentration of HD-OPFRs was first reported as 32,842.53 ng/g with an average concentration range of 189.15 ng/g to 193,962.5 ng/g, while chloride OPFRs were the main conger (1350.00 ng/g). According to the temporal distribution data, the highest concentrations of HD-OPFRs (81,135.14 ng/g) were recorded between 2007 and 2011. Household items may be the main source of HD-OPFRs, and policy implementation and economic growth will have an effect. The primary route of exposure was through the skin (adults: 8.47 × 10–4 mg/kg bw/day; children: 5.06E × 10–3 mg/kg bw/day), and the carcinogenic risks of TCEP, TNBP, and TEHP exceed the acceptable level under high-exposure scenarios. HD-OPFRs concentrations are relatively high in many nations, and their distribution patterns are influenced by household products, the economy, and regulations. Enough attention must also be paid to the health risks they represent to people in future. • OPFRs pollution was universe with high concentrations in household dust globally. • Relative heavy pollution of household dust OPFRs showed in 2007–2011 and North America. • National Per capita GDP was positively correlated with household dust OPFRs level. • Carcinogenic risk from household dust OPFRs exposure exceeded acceptable level.