Thermal state preparation by repeated interactions at and beyond the Lindblad limit

We study the nature of thermalization dynamics and the associated preparation (simulation) time under the repeated interaction protocol uncovering an anomalous, Mpemba-like trend. As a case study, we focus on a three-level system and analyze its dynamics in two complementary regimes, where the system-ancilla interaction strength is either large or small. Focusing on the estimation of the simulation time, we derive closed-form expressions for the minimum number of collisions, or minimal simulation time, required to achieve a thermal state, which is within <a:math xmlns:a="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><a:mi>ε</a:mi></a:math> distance to the target thermal state. At zero temperature, we analytically identify a set of points (interaction strength <b:math xmlns:b="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><b:mo>×</b:mo></b:math> their duration) that minimize the simulation time. At nonzero temperature, we observe a Mpemba-like effect: Starting from a maximally mixed state, thermalization to an intermediate-temperature state takes longer than to a lower-temperature one. We provide an accurate analytical approximation for this phenomenon and demonstrate its occurrence in larger systems and under randomized interaction strengths. The prevalence of the Mpemba effect in thermal state preparation presents a significant challenge for preparing states in large systems, an open problem calling for new strategies.