Development of livelihood vulnerability indicators in the context of compulsory land acquisition for infrastructure development

Abstract Compulsory land acquisition, while essential for infrastructure development, often disrupts the social, economic, and environmental systems of affected communities. Legal reforms have ensured fair compensation and provided livelihood restoration assistance, yet implementation frequently prioritizes short-term recovery over long-term resilience due to limited understanding of community vulnerability. This study develops context-sensitive indicators to assess livelihood vulnerability in the setting of compulsory land acquisition. Using the Fuzzy Delphi Method (FDM), expert knowledge was engaged to identify and validate multidimensional indicators. From 53 indicators derived through literature review, 34 experts, including academics, practitioners, and community facilitators, evaluated their relevance. The process resulted in 27 selected indicators considered as “important”, with four emerging as particular critical: occupational vulnerability, land-related disruption, food security, and market stability. These indicators provide a practical foundation for designing targeted and equitable livelihood restoration programs. By aligning these indicators, restoration efforts can be tailored according to the vulnerability trait of the communities. It also serves as a practical and adaptable tool for equitable livelihood restoration in diverse global contexts, especially in countries experiencing increased land acquisition pressures due to rapid infrastructure development.