Group-Focused Enmity (GFE) among majority and ethnic minority members in Belgium: Testing measurement invariance using 2nd-order CFA

This study examines the structure of Group-Focused Enmity (GFE) among majority and ethnic minority populations in Belgium using second-order Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). While GFE has been widely studied in majority populations, its configuration among minorities remains underexplored. Using data from the 2020 Belgian National Elections Study (BNES) and the Belgian Ethnic Minorities Elections Study (BEMES), we compare measurements of GFE between majority Belgians and Belgians of Turkish and Moroccan descent. While a 2nd-order factor measuring GFE can be distinguished in both groups, measurement invariance tests reveal important differences in its constellation. While anti-Muslim sentiment dominates GFE among majority Belgians, antisemitism is the central component among Belgians of Turkish and Moroccan descent. These findings highlight the group-specific nature of the structure of interrelated prejudices.