Unpacking the Trade-Offs: A Meta-Analysis of Soil Fertility, Crop Yield, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Across Fertilizer Types (Organic, Mineral) and Cropping Systems

Different strategies are used in organic and conventional cultivation, which can significantly influence crop yield, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and soil quality. However, the relative efficiency of these fertilization practices has not been systematically compared. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impacts of organic, conventional, and semi-organic fertilization systems on soil properties, crop productivity, and GHG emissions through a comprehensive meta-analysis. The analysis showed that conventional systems had the highest increase in nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions (+62%), followed by semi-organic (+55%) and organic (+21%). Soil texture strongly influenced methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) fluxes, with clay soils showing the highest CH₄ response (+50%). Cropping practices such as intercropping and crop rotation enhanced soil nitrate availability (+18%), while vegetable and cereal systems improved crop yield by +29% and +19%, respectively. Importantly, semi-organic systems increased yield (+25%) while reducing greenhouse gas intensity (+13%), especially in cereals under intercropping. Integrating organic inputs into semi-organic systems, especially in cereal cultivation under intercropping practices, appears to reduce the carbon intensity per unit yield while maintaining productivity. These findings underscore the importance of context-specific management strategies to optimize agronomic performance and mitigate environmental impacts.