A smart pen-based analysis of Chinese character stroke order errors among beginning Central Asian students

The ability to master Chinese orthography is of increasing importance in global education, yet learners from non-logographic backgrounds encounter persistent and distinctive obstacles. Addressing the specific challenges experienced by Central Asian students is crucial for informing targeted teaching strategies. The present study sought to elucidate the procedural difficulties and cognitive factors underlying stroke order errors in Chinese character writing among five beginning-level international students from Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, all native Dungan speakers fluent in Russian. Utilising smart pen technology to record and analyse the writing process, the authors of this study collected data on stroke order errors during textbook-based copying exercises. Analysis of 605 error instances across 1,800 characters revealed an average error rate of 33.6% per student for characters containing errors. The most prevalent error types were stroke sequence errors (78.5%), stroke direction errors (19.3%), and stroke reversal phenomena (2.2%). Common sequence errors included horizontal-vertical order reversal (31.4%) and component order reversal (28.6%), while frequent direction errors involved confusion between ‘ti’ (提) and ‘pie’ (撇) strokes (52.1%). The findings indicated that, although a Dungan language background may offer certain phonological advantages, it does not inherently support correct stroke order execution, which is significantly influenced by prior Cyrillic/Russian script habits. This research advances understanding of the specific procedural barriers faced by Central Asian learners and proposes evidence-based interventions for more effective Chinese character instruction