From Neuropeptides to Toxins: Illuminating the Origins of Venom Complexity in Cone Snails
New genes and gene functions are key drivers of evolutionary innovation. Venomous animals, such as cone snails, provide striking examples of gene innovation, yet the mechanisms by which toxins arise remain poorly understood. Using the Conus textile genome, we uncover how neuropeptide genes were recruited into the venom and neofunctionalized as doppelgänger toxins. We identify over 20 independent recruitment events that evolved dynamically across the Conus lineage. Rather than arising from ohnologs of a whole-genome duplication event ∼200 mya, these toxins evolved through diverse mechanisms, including exon shuffling, alternative splicing, and ectopic recombination, often facilitated by lineage-specific transposable elements. Our findings reveal a dynamic interplay between genome architecture and molecular innovation, offering broad insight into the evolution of complex gene repertoires in venoms and beyond.
Authors
- Baldomero M. Olivera (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4556-1410)
- Thomas Lund Koch (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8489-0375)
- Eivind A. B. Undheim (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8667-3999)
- Maren Watkins (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4127-1961)
- Neil D. Young (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8756-229X)
- Paula Flórez Salcedo (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2109-8612)
- Kevin Chase (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9968-1437)
- Helena Safavi-Hemami (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1984-2721)
- Ave Tooming‐Klunderud (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0057-2873)
- Giada Ferrari (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0850-1518)
- Arturo O. Lluisma (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1555-9662)
- Angel Yanagihara (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6908-8176)
- Sunita B. Sumanam (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8907-1524)
Institutions
- University of the Philippines System (PH)
- University of Copenhagen (DK)
- University of Hawaii System (US)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- University of Oslo (NO)
- University of Utah (US)
- University of the Philippines Diliman (PH)
Publication Details
- Journal
- Molecular Biology and Evolution
- Published
- 2026-08-14
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msag206
- Citations
- 2
- Primary Topic
- Cephalopods and Marine Biology
- Type
- article
- Field-Weighted Citation Impact
- 25.22
Funders
- National Institute of Health Sciences
- University of Utah
- Huntsman Cancer Institute
- Norwegian Sequencing Centre
- Universitetet i Oslo
- Norges Forskningsråd
- Science for Life Laboratory
- National Institutes of Health
- National Cancer Institute