Troubled Belonging in Offline and Online Spaces

This article examines the multifaceted experiences of Polish Muslims as they navigate belonging within both offline and online environments. Using data from a survey and semi-structured interviews, the study illustrates how issues of trust, religious identity, and social exclusion intersect in a predominantly Catholic society. The findings show that widespread skepticism toward Islam and negative media portrayals contribute to Polish Muslims’ heightened sense of caution and lower level of general trust in comparison to the broader population. Converts to Islam report additional pressures, particularly regarding cultural customs and familial ties, which can amplify feelings of marginalization. Within the Muslim community itself, ethnic, national, and denominational differences give rise to multiple religious organizations. Although they can foster solidarity, they also risk over-fragmenting the wider ummah. While online social media offer valuable spaces for initial exploration of Islam, they can also heighten intra-group tensions. Study participants describe the community as marked by “quarrelers” and rigid religious standards that discourage open, inclusive dialogue. Overall, the research suggests that Polish Muslims face “troubled belonging” on two fronts: external exclusion stemming from societal mistrust, and internal divisions resulting from diverse religious and cultural practices.