Unlocking pathways to livelihood improvement through valuation of ecosystem services in Kakamega Forest, Kenya

• Ecosystem service (ES) valuation provided metrics comparable to economic models • Diverse needs and preferences were identified within socio-demographic categories • Communities showed strong preference for tangible ES compared to intangible ES • Inclusive schemes effectively addressed immediate economic needs of communities • Payment for Ecosystem Services is recommended for livelihood improvement Overdependence on tropical forest ecosystems in the Global South continues to drive deforestation and environmental degradation. The non-conformity of ecosystem service (ES) values with conventional economic models limits effective resource management policies. ES valuation provides comparable metrics for the economic inclusion of natural capital in decision-making for livelihood improvement. This research assessed how forest dependent communities derive economic and cultural value from Kakamega Forest Ecosystem (KFE) in Kenya by (i) identifying the most frequently used forest products, (ii) evaluating the contribution of foraged forest products to local livelihoods, and (iii) determining their perceptions and willingness to pay (WTP) for cultural ES. This research used survey methods to collect primary data by distributing mixed-format questionnaires to 631 households across five sub-counties bordering KFE. Statistical analyses of collected data were conducted in R studio. Firewood at 49% was the most frequently used forest product of the total foraged products. The total annual monetary valuation for tangible ES was US$ 283,362, which comprised vines (Mondia whitei) at US$ 74,786, firewood at US$ 73,513, fruits ( Persea americana ) at US$ 72,860, medicinal plants US$ 39,320, timber US$ 12,801, and mushrooms (Auricularia auricula-judae) at US$ 8,015. For the intangible ES, 93% of the respondents had WTP within the price range of US$ 0.55 to US$ 2.17 with an average of 70% positive perceptions expressed for cultural ES at forest sacred groves. The findings on both economic and cultural dependencies on KFE enabled Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) scenarios in livelihood improvement. This research recommends PES schemes and socially inclusive interventions for sustainable forest management.