Life-cycle economic benefits analysis of passive and active buildings in cold regions of northern China

Rising energy costs and continued reliance on fossil fuels for winter heating have intensified economic and environmental pressures in cold-climate regions such as northern China, underscoring the importance of passive building strategies for improving efficiency and sustainability. This study investigated passive and active building types in Harbin, China, using life-cycle economic benefit analysis to evaluate their relative economic performance. A cross-sectional study with purposive sampling was conducted, involving developers, owners, architects, and engineers from 30 buildings through structured interviews. While the exploratory sample size limits generalizability, the findings provide valuable insights for this emerging field in cold-climate regions. The results demonstrate that incorporating natural elements and energy-efficient measures in passive building design yields superior economic and ecological benefits. Net present value analysis showed negative values for active buildings but positive values for passive buildings. The benefit-cost ratio for passive structures was 1.434 compared to 0.774 for active buildings. In practical terms, passive buildings generate approximately $1.43 in benefits for every dollar invested, while active buildings recover only $0.77 per dollar invested. A detailed case study of two 5,000 sqm buildings with comparable specifications validated these findings. To achieve widespread adoption and maximize long-term sustainability, this study highlights the need to prioritize passive design principles in cold-climate construction and to incorporate life-cycle cost calculations into mandatory building standards rather than voluntary guidelines.