Pre-service biology teachers as developers of mobile augmented reality teaching materials: Enhancing, not replacing, science practices and connections with the natural environment

• Pre-service biology teachers see mAR that they are developing as boosting teachers' creative teaching and collaboration. • Teachers developed mAR to foster immersive, hands-on biology experiments beyond usual classroom limits, students’ creativity, critical thinking and connection with nature. • Pre-service biology teachers are indicating the following challenges in developing mAR limited resources and minimal institutional backing. The benefits of Augmented Reality (AR) in modernizing teaching are widely recognized. Nonetheless, doubts persist about aligning AR materials with learning goals and ensuring scientific accuracy. Current research trends highlight teachers as developers of mobile AR content (mAR) to address these gaps, yet few studies have explored biology-focused mAR. This study employed Diffusion of Innovations Theory and mixed-methods approach to examine pre-service biology teachers’ (PSBTs) perceptions of developing and integrating mAR in future teaching. Participants received training to develop their own mAR teaching content. Data are collected with using questionnaires and audio recorded discussions during training. Qualitative data were processed using content analysis, while quantitative data underwent descriptive statistics and Spearman's rank correlation. Results confirm that PSBTs are eager to produce and employ mAR materials in teaching. They believe such development stimulates creativity and fosters collaboration among teachers. Results indicate that PSBT are having opinions that teachers’ developed mAR resources can better address students’ needs, promote critical thinking, and enable hands-on experimentation that might otherwise be unfeasible. PSBTs also note that these materials can be blended with traditional tools and real-world natural surroundings, enhancing students’ connection with nature. However, technical complexity, accessibility of digital resources needs for mAR development, and lack of institutional support pose obstacles. Nonetheless, quantitative outcomes reveal a positive overall perception of mAR’s impact on teaching quality and student motivation, though PSBTs highlight the importance of ongoing training and stronger alliances with colleagues and educational managers.