Second-order preferences: What we want others to like and how it affects what we think of public policy

A second-order preference is a preference for a preference, in self or others. First-order preferences about the social and physical environment are often packaged with second-order preferences for other people's preferences. Opposition to pornography for example, wanting less of it, may be combined with wanting less desire for it. If pornography becomes more prevalent over time, people opposed to it may oppose it even more when they learn that preferences change in the same direction, i.e. if it causes others to adapt (consume more of it, or simply think it's a good thing even if they don't consume it). By contrast those favouring the change in prevalence might think it even better in this case. People also have second-order preferences for their own preferences, especially in situations involving self-control. We show that people hold other-regarding second-order preferences that are somewhat independent of their first-order preferences, and which affect their preferences for policy changes. The second-order preferences could either be more negative (wanting less, as found in Study 1) or more positive, depending on the case (in Studies 2--4). Preferences for policies were affected by second-order preferences for the direction of adaptation. In Studies 3 and 4, subjects believed others to be more mistaken than they themselves would be about what is good for them, resulting in a greater discrepancy for others of second-order preferences from predicted first-order preferences.