From fragments to text and ink: a scientific and historical study of an Umayyad Qur’ān

Abstract Three undated, unidentified and decontextualised Qurʾānic fragments on parchment from the collection of the University of Münster were analysed applying a cross-disciplinary approach, in an attempt to identify their writing materials, re-establish their integrity and original historical context. The results from palaeographic, philological and historical analysis of the fragments enabled us to reconstruct a possible stratigraphy for the objects and revealed the presence of later scribal interventions in the form of re-inking and one correction. Material analysis, particularly XRF spectroscopy, was then used to identify the inks employed for writing. Specifically, Cu/Fe ratios were used as fingerprints to distinguish variants of iron-gall ink, and revealed: a primary ink, for writing the initial text and a secondary ink, which could be attributed to later scribal interventions. The combined results allowed us to place the fragments in their original historical context, facilitating their attribution to the same Umayyad Qurʾān.