Large‐Scale Carbon‐Based Perovskite Solar Cells: Scalable Fabrication, Performance Optimization, and Industrialization Pathways

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have garnered significant attention as promising contenders in the photovoltaic industry, owing to their compelling combination of low cost, high power conversion efficiency (PCE), and tunable bandgap properties. Among these, carbon-based PSCs (C-PSCs) have presented a unique industrial potential in addressing the "efficiency-lifetime-cost" challenge due to its high stability and low cost. However, the high-defect density and severe interface energy loss, which caused by the deposition process compatibility during the expansion of small-scale devices to large-scale devices, greatly limit the development of large-scale C-PSCs. Hence, this review systematically examines recent progress in large-scale C-PSCs and modules, mainly focusing on scalable fabrication techniques and performance enhancement strategies in both high-temperature carbon electrode (HT-CE) and low-temperature carbon electrode (LT-CE) photovoltaic devices. Furthermore, the encapsulation technologies and cost of C-PSCs are also discussed and analyzed. Finally, this work gives a brief outlook on the commercialization challenges and opportunities of large-scale C-PSCs.