Environmental impacts of livestock management strategies in subtropical agroecosystems

Livestock farming plays a vital role in the rural economies of subtropical regions but also poses environmental and public health risks due to poor waste management and inadequate biosecurity. This study assessed management practices and wastewater characteristics across 60 livestock farms in District Rawalpindi, Pakistan, categorized as small, medium, and large-scale operations. Data were collected through structured questionnaires and seasonal wastewater sampling. Physicochemical parameters such as pH, temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), and total phosphorus (TP) were analyzed. Results showed significant variation in farm practices and effluent quality by scale. Large farms exhibited higher TDS levels (18,208 mg/L), while small farms had elevated COD (6,289 mg/L) and BOD (2,426 mg/L), indicating poor organic waste management. Principal component analysis (PCA) identified COD, BOD, and TDS as key contributors to wastewater variability. These findings underscore the impact of farm size on environmental pollution and management standards. Targeted farmer education, infrastructural improvements, and decentralized wastewater treatment systems are essential to promote sustainable and safer livestock practices in subtropical agroecosystems.