How green and blue spaces promote health among vulnerable urban populations facing climate hazards. A scoping review

• Urban green and blue spaces promote health and well-being, while mitigating the effects of climate events. • Distributional, procedural, recognitional injustice challenges persist, with vulnerable populations being greatly affected. • Knowledge gaps remain related to the unique benefits of blue spaces, and related to vulnerable groups. • Complex space, society, and climate links are illustrated in our Inclusive Climate and Health Resilience Framework for Urban Spaces . • Need for integrated, interdisciplinary, and co-design approaches, that recognise diverse perspectives and needs. Green and blue spaces contribute to physical, mental, and social well-being, particularly in urban areas and populations with limited access to nature and increasing climate-related stressors. Vulnerable groups, such as older adults, children, and low-income populations, are more susceptible to health and climate risks, while also facing physical and social barriers to accessing these health-promoting spaces. This scoping review synthesizes the current state of knowledge regarding the impact of green and blue spaces on the health and well-being of vulnerable urban populations in the context of extreme climate events, including heat waves and flooding. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses checklist for scoping reviews (PRISMA – ScR), we searched the Web of Science database with ASReview assisting in screening, resulting in 28 papers published between 2012 and 2024, included for analysis. Findings confirm a well-established link between green spaces and heat, and highlight the need for further research on specific well-being outcomes for vulnerable groups, including underlying pathways and the unique benefits of blue spaces. We developed an Inclusive Climate and Health Resilience Framework for Urban Spaces that integrates and illustrates the interconnections of these complex components of space, society, and well-being. Future studies should prioritize integrated, interdisciplinary approaches and involve co-designing solutions with affected communities, actively incorporating their diverse perspectives and needs. Health resilience, inclusive urban planning and the development of healthy, climate-resilient cities could be further strengthened through green and blue spaces by applying the Inclusive Climate and Health Resilience Framework for Urban Spaces.