Remanufacturing Process Under Uncertainty: Review, Challenges, and Future Directions

In the context of the global transition toward carbon neutrality and the circular economy, remanufacturing has emerged as a vital strategy for enhancing resource efficiency and reducing environmental impact. However, the remanufacturing sector faces significant uncertainties—including fluctuations in market demand, variability in the quality of returned products, and dynamic policy changes. These factors collectively challenge production decision-making and system sustainability. Following the preferred peporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, this study conducted a systematic review and bibliometric analysis of 98 core articles published between 2015 and 2024, with a focused examination of three interdisciplinary themes: (1) decision-making and optimization under uncertainty, (2) supply chain coordination and policy mechanisms, and (3) digital transformation and the application of emerging technologies. A novel micro–meso–macro analytical framework is proposed to integrate fragmented findings. The results highlight a paradigm shift from static models to dynamic, real-time decision-making systems, facilitated by digital twins (DTs), blockchain, and intelligent algorithms. Furthermore, the study identifies the synergistic effects of carbon-financial instruments and policy incentives in aligning economic and environmental objectives. This research develops a systematic framework to understand and address uncertainties in remanufacturing, offering policymakers and industry practitioners actionable insights to enhance the resilience, sustainability, and global applicability of remanufacturing systems.