Metal–organic frameworks for biomedical applications: bridging materials science and regenerative medicine

This review explores the biomedical applications of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), focusing on their potential in bone regeneration. Due to their high porosity, tunable structures, and biocompatibility, MOFs have emerged as promising candidates for bone tissue engineering. This article discusses the synthesis and functionalization of MOFs at the micro- and nanoscale, their interactions with biological environments, and their roles in drug delivery, osteoinduction, and osteoconduction. Recent advancements in theranostic MOF-based scaffolds, which integrate both therapeutic and diagnostic functions, are also highlighted. By mimicking the natural bone architecture, these smart scaffolds promote ossification and angiogenesis while enabling targeted therapy and precision imaging. Despite their great potential, challenges such as metal toxicity, stability, and clinical translation remain. This review emphasizes the transformative role of MOFs in regenerative medicine and discusses strategies to overcome these limitations for future clinical applications.