Process optimization of microwave-assisted hydrodistillation for Andaliman (Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC.) extraction: Investigating solvent volume, power, and time effects on yield

Andaliman ( Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC.) is an aromatic spice known for its bioactive compounds. This study optimized the extraction of Andaliman essential oil using microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD), an energy-efficient and eco-friendly method. Preliminary experiments varied solvent volume (300–500 mL), microwave power (180–450 W), and extraction time (60–90 min) to determine effective operational ranges. Optimization was performed using response surface methodology (RSM) with a central composite design (CCD), focusing on solvent volume (300–400 mL), microwave power (180–450 W), and extraction time (60–90 min). The highest predicted yield (5.61%) was obtained at 312.12 mL solvent, 420 W power, and 90 minutes, with strong model validity (R 2 = 96.82%, lack-of-fit p = 0.43). Although antioxidant activity was not evaluated, several identified compounds are known to possess such properties. The optimized MAHD process demonstrates potential benefits such as reduced processing time and minimal solvent use, which may contribute to improved sustainability. However, further validation and scale-up studies are recommended to confirm its industrial feasibility and functional properties. • Microwave distillation improves yield of Andaliman spice extract • Solvent volume strongly influences extraction efficiency • Power levels affect heat transfer and essential oil recovery • Extraction time plays a key role in maximizing yield • Optimized process enhances sustainable spice utilization