Reconstruction of the depth of the shower maximum of air showers with the SD-750 surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory using neural networks
The origin of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) is one of the intriguing mysteries in astroparticle physics. In order to identify their sources, we need precise knowledge of the mass composition of UHECRs. The direct detection of UHECRs is not feasible at energies above 0.1 PeV, necessitating the use of mass-sensitive observables of extended air showers induced by UHECRs interacting with the atmosphere. One way to achieve high statistics for these mass-sensitive observables is to use ground-based detector arrays, such as the Surface Detector (SD) of the Pierre Auger Observatory. The SD consists of three sub-arrays of independent detector stations arranged in triangular grids with different spacings. Recently, it has been shown that neural networks (NNs) can extract mass-sensitive observables from data taken by the SD-1500, the largest sub-detector of the SD. In this contribution, we demonstrate the feasibility of using NNs to reconstruct a high-level shower observable, the depth of the shower maximum, from data simulated for and observed by the SD-750, the second-largest detector array nested within the SD-1500. A simulation study shows that the SD-750 NN exhibits behavior similar to that of an SD-1500 NN and outperforms the latter in the energy range [1, 10) EeV. Moreover, we show that, after performing a correction and calibration procedure, the predictions of the SD-750 NN are consistent with the measurement of the depth of the shower maximum obtained by the Fluorescence Detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory.
Authors
- Belén Andrada
- Zbigniew Szadkowski (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2690-9912)
- Bruno L. Lago (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9672-0499)
- Carla Taricco (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0129-5539)
- Giovanni Consolati (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3614-245X)
- Juan Manuel Gonzalez (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9193-0921)
- S. Petrera (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6029-1255)
- Varada Varma Kizakke Covilakam (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5278-3172)
- T. Pierog (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7472-8710)
- G. Sigl (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4396-645X)
- Mateo Fernandez
- T. Huege (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2783-4772)
- Nicolas Leal
- Carmina Pérez Bertolli (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9790-5732)
- Carlo Salvattore Cruz Sanchez (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6173-0974)
- Frank Schröder (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8495-7210)
- A. Bueno (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7439-4247)
- Gustavo Medina‐Tanco (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3202-319X)
- A. C. Fauth (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7239-0288)
- Enrico Arnone (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6740-5051)
- Enrique Varela (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0715-7513)
- O. Schölten (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3649-1254)
- Olena Tkachenko (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6393-7851)
- Lorenzo Cazon (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6748-8395)
- Pierpaolo Savina (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7670-554X)
- Lukáš Vaclavek (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0910-3415)
- B. R. Dawson (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4271-3055)
- Matteo Conte (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9932-224X)
- A. Haungs (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9638-7574)
- Harm Schoorlemmer (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8999-9249)
- Dalibor Nosek (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6219-200X)
- G. Parente (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2847-0461)
- Paula Gina Isar (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1241-584X)
- Laura Valore (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2682-8378)
- Janning Meinert (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7582-3456)
- Emanuele De Vito (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2045-7588)
- Dušan Mandát (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7748-7468)
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- Adila Abdul Halim (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1218-1737)
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- Jiří Blažek (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5870-8947)
- Therese Paulsen
- Adriel Bartz Mocellin
- Berenika Čermáková
- S. J. de Jong (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3120-3367)
- V. Rizi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5277-6527)
- Armando di Matteo (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8260-1867)
- Andres Travaini (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7875-2147)
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- Shima Ujjani Shivashankara
- A. Letessier‐Selvon (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2044-3103)
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- Corinne Bérat (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8294-6294)
- Luis Miguel Domingues Mendes (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0651-9404)
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- Agustín Cobos Cerutti
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- Milton Freitas
- M. Pimenta (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2590-0908)
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- Kathrin Bismark (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8637-7041)
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- P. Gabriel Brichetto Orchera
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- Silvia Mollerach
- Alan Fuster
- Petr Janeček (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3501-7163)
- Virginia Binet
- Marina Scornavacche
- Alexander Menshikov
- C. Dobrigkeit
- Juan Carlos Arteaga Velázquez
- Indira D. Vergara Quispe
- Ricardo Sato
- Paul Sommers
- Cainã Oliveira
- Max Büsken
- Gualberto Avila
- Marta Bianciotto
- Steffen Hahn
- A. Săftoiu (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7903-6510)
- L. Lopes (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8571-0033)
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- Fabian Gobbi
- Jonathan Biteau
- Baobiao Yue
- Diego Correia dos Santos
- Lorenzo Apollonio (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-5625-5893)
- Srijan Sehgal
- Miroslav Hrabovský
- Joao dos Anjos
- Diego Melo
- Vlastimil Jílek (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5774-7285)
- Veronika Vašíčková
- Alexandra Fernandes (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9187-4007)
- Ugo GIACCARI
- J. Rautenberg
- Shayoni Panja
- Sara Martinelli
- Diego Ravignani
- Jaime de Oliveira
- Libor Nožka
- Jannis Pawlowsky
- Juan Manuel Figueira
- Federico Campuzano
- Frederik Krieger
- Sven Querchfeld
- Matthias Kleifges
- Luciana Andrade Dourado
- Petr Schovánek (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5344-7645)
- Tomáš Fodran (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-9529-0853)
- Matias Jorge Tueros (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1570-1419)
- G. Cataldi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8066-7718)
- Megha Mogarkar
- Jhansi Bhavani Vuta
- Eric-Teunis de Boone
- Mohamed Ismaiel
- Karolina Syrokvas
- Matteo Tambone
- Pim van Dillen
Publication Details
- Published
- 2025-09-23
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.22323/1.501.0284
- Primary Topic
- Astrophysics and Cosmic Phenomena
- Type
- article
- Field-Weighted Citation Impact
- 0.00
Funders
- Strong
- European Commission
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- Agence Nationale de la Recherche
- Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo
- Ministerstvo Školství, Mládeže a Tělovýchovy
- Grantová Agentura České Republiky
- Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung
- Fonds De La Recherche Scientifique - FNRS
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas
- Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
- Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
- Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos
- Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, Inovações e Comunicações
- Vlaamse regering
- Ministerium für Kultur und Wissenschaft des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen
- Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics
- Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica
- Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules