A decade of sustainable development goals: A cluster-based evaluation through four theoretical lenses

Despite significant efforts to track progress toward the United Nations' 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), there remains a limited theoretical understanding of the underlying drivers shaping countries' trajectories. Drawing on recent SDG achievement data for 167 countries, this paper applied cluster analysis to identify distinct patterns in national performance. The analysis revealed four country clusters: (1) High-Income Innovators , (2) Low-Impact Developing Countries , (3) Wealth-Driven but Environmentally Vulnerable Countries , and (4) Moderate-Performing Countries . To interpret these patterns, the study integrated insights from four theoretical frameworks—Schumpeterian innovation theory, degrowth theory, postcolonial theory, and rentier state theory. To empirically assess the drivers of the cluster analysis results, a correlation analysis was conducted between countries’ overall SDG scores, government effectiveness, and economic performance within each cluster. Based on this theoretical grounding, the paper proposed four targeted pathways for accelerating SDG progress: promoting circular economies (Cluster 1), advancing South–South cooperation (Cluster 2), channeling sovereign wealth funds into climate-resilient infrastructure (Cluster 3), and embedding sustainability metrics in governance and business practices (Cluster 4). By connecting empirical patterns with theoretical insights, this research enhances the context-sensitive and effective design of sustainable development policies. • Limited theoretical understanding persists on sustainable development goals progress. • Cluster analysis of 167 countries reveals four distinct clusters. • To explain the drivers of these clusters, the study applies four theoretical lenses. • Context-sensitive strategies are proposed to enhance sustainability performance.