Risk factors for first-trimester spontaneous abortion and the role of preconception care

The findings may help clinicians stratify pregnant women who require additional monitoring and pre-pregnancy interventions. From a public health perspective, integrating preconception care into routine health services can enhance maternal and neonatal outcomes, reduce healthcare costs, and improve health equity by targeting vulnerable populations. However, the results should be interpreted as associations, and prospective studies are needed to assess the potential effects of preconception care on spontaneous abortion in the first trimester.