Plant- Based vaccines in agriculture

Plant-based vaccines have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional vaccine production systems, offering a low-cost, scalable, and safe platform for both human and veterinary applications.Over the past three decades, significant progress has been made in developing edible and oral vaccines using crops such as potato, rice, maize, tomato, and lettuce, as well as transient expression systems in nicotiana benthamiana.These platforms provide distinct advantages, including reduced risk of contamination with animal pathogens, simplified storage and distribution, and the possibility of direct oral delivery.In agriculture, plant-based vaccines have been extensively explored for livestock and poultry diseases such as avian influenza, Newcastle disease, and rabies, as well as for aquaculture pathogens.Recent advances in molecular farming, synthetic biology, and expression engineering have enhanced antigen yield, stability, and immunogenicity, while innovations in purification stratagies and delivery systems have addressed earlier limitations.Despite these successes, challenges remain, including regulatory approval, dosage standardization, public acceptance of genetically modified crops, and large-scale commercial production.Collectively ,the reviewed literature highlights that plant-based vaccines represent a sustainable and versatile strategy for improving global animal and human health, with strong potential to transform agricultural biotechnology in the coming decade.