Determination of the energy scale of cosmic ray measurements using the Auger Engineering Radio Array
The accurate determination of the absolute energy scale in cosmic ray measurements is both a challenging and fundamentally important task. We present how measurements of radio pulses from extensive air showers with the Auger Engineering Radio Array, combined with per-event simulations of radio emission using the CoREAS extension of CORSIKA, allow us to determine the energy scale of cosmic rays between $3\cdot 10^{17}$ eV and several $10^{18}$ eV. Our analysis accounts for many factors, each of which is controlled on the 5% level or better. The absolute calibration of the antennas and the entire analog signal chain builds on a Galactic calibration in combination with a detailed understanding of the antenna-gain patterns. Additional key elements include compensation for temperature-dependent signal amplification, continuous detector health monitoring, an active veto for thunderstorm conditions, an unbiased event reconstruction, and per-event atmospheric modeling in the simulations. The analysis benefits from a high-statistics dataset of over 800 measured cosmic ray showers. We describe our analysis method, perform multiple cross-checks, and evaluate systematic uncertainties. We find that absolute energies determined with AERA are 12% higher than those established with the Auger Fluorescence Detector, a result well in agreement within systematic uncertainties and thus a strong independent confirmation of the absolute energy scale of the Pierre Auger Observatory.
Authors
- Belén Andrada
- Zbigniew Szadkowski (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2690-9912)
- Bruno L. Lago (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9672-0499)
- Carla Taricco (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0129-5539)
- Giovanni Consolati (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3614-245X)
- Juan Manuel Gonzalez (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9193-0921)
- S. Petrera (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6029-1255)
- T. Pierog (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7472-8710)
- G. Sigl (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4396-645X)
- Mateo Fernandez
- T. Huege (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2783-4772)
- Marta Bianciotto (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9599-3214)
- Nicolas Leal
- Carmina Pérez Bertolli (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9790-5732)
- Carlo Salvattore Cruz Sanchez (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6173-0974)
- Frank Schröder (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8495-7210)
- A. Bueno (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7439-4247)
- Gustavo Medina‐Tanco (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3202-319X)
- A. C. Fauth (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7239-0288)
- Enrico Arnone (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6740-5051)
- Enrique Varela (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0715-7513)
- O. Schölten (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3649-1254)
- Olena Tkachenko (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6393-7851)
- Lorenzo Cazon (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6748-8395)
- Pierpaolo Savina (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7670-554X)
- Lukáš Vaclavek (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0910-3415)
- B. R. Dawson (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4271-3055)
- Laura Valore
- A. Haungs (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9638-7574)
- Harm Schoorlemmer (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8999-9249)
- Dalibor Nosek (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6219-200X)
- G. Parente (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2847-0461)
- Paula Gina Isar (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1241-584X)
- Janning Meinert (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7582-3456)
- Emanuele De Vito (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2045-7588)
- Dušan Mandát (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7748-7468)
- Adila Abdul Halim (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1218-1737)
- Gonzalo Rodriguez Fernandez (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4683-230X)
- Jiří Blažek (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5870-8947)
- Therese Paulsen
- Adriel Bartz Mocellin
- Berenika Čermáková
- S. J. de Jong (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3120-3367)
- V. Rizi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5277-6527)
- Andres Travaini (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7875-2147)
- Alexey Yushkov (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5107-9116)
- K. Daumiller (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0527-4823)
- A. Insolia (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9040-1566)
- Lorenzo Caccianiga (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2245-5108)
- Darko Veberič (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2683-1526)
- María Isabel Micheletti (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1063-9938)
- A. Segreto (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7341-6603)
- L. Nellen (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1059-8731)
- Felicia Barbato (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0751-6731)
- Jan Pękala
- Viviana Scherini (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3762-4063)
- Gabriela Nicora (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7504-6423)
- Thomas Fitoussi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9473-9356)
- Katarína Simkova (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2363-9846)
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- F. Sarazin (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5614-1986)
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- Luis A. Núñez
- Chaitanya Priyadarshi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9160-9617)
- M. Cristinziani (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3893-9171)
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- Clara Keiko Oliveira Watanabe
- Roberta Colalillo (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4179-9352)
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- Benjamin Flaggs (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5549-1869)
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- Maximilian Straub
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- Camilla Petrucci
- Steffen Hahn (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5040-3666)
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- Alex Tapia (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0585-7161)
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- I. De Mitri (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8665-1730)
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- Antonio Franco (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7707-4241)
- Roberto Aloisio (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0161-5923)
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- Simone Rossoni
- S. Buitink (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6177-497X)
- Petr Tobiška (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0526-9098)
- Juan Ammerman Yebra (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2059-6206)
- Violet M. Harvey (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6764-4789)
- Achille Nucita (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7926-3481)
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- Lawrence Wiencke (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2878-9704)
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- Lorenzo Perrone (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8380-9643)
- Nicolás Martín González (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6566-2222)
- Silvia Mollerach (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9339-5317)
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- Nicolas San Martin
- Corinne Bérat (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8294-6294)
- Zuzana Svozilikova (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5210-0781)
- М. Бертаина (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1069-1397)
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- M. Mallamaci (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4068-0496)
- Alena Bakalová (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1001-4484)
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- Agustín Cobos Cerutti
- David Schmidt (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2005-4244)
- Krzysztof Pytel (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2937-7886)
- Adriana Vásquez-Ramírez (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7499-9302)
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- Shefali Negi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0891-0829)
- Jon Paul Lundquist (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4245-5092)
- Edyvânia Emily Pereira Martins (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1167-8314)
- Fridtjof Feldbusch
- S. Vorobiov (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8679-3424)
- Ezequiel Rodriguez (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2523-1919)
- Alexander Novikov (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1086-7252)
- Varada Varma Kizakke Covilakam
- Emanuele Avocone (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3757-2718)
- Primo F. Gómez Vitale (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9689-2020)
- H.O. Klages (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4306-021X)
- H. Wilczyński (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2652-9685)
- Antonio Ambrosone (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9942-1029)
- Pranav Sampathkumar
- M. Aglietta (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8354-5388)
- Patricia María Hansen
- A. Gorgi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8085-2304)
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- Italo Epicoco (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6408-1335)
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- Luan Bonneau Arbeletche (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4544-9808)
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- Fernando Catalani (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9332-1476)
- Adrian Sedoski (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4253-3361)
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- Joaquín de Jesús (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4741-1769)
- Milton Freitas
- M. Pimenta (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2590-0908)
- Niklas Langner (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7443-3042)
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- Matías Rolf Hampel (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7622-4826)
- Jose A. Bellido (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0833-9194)
- Kathrin Bismark (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8637-7041)
- Adrián Rovero (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6979-5604)
- D. Góra (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4853-5974)
- J. Řídký (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6697-1393)
- B. Keilhauer (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4494-1155)
- Stef Verpoest (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3031-3206)
- R. W. Clay (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9040-9648)
- Katharine Mulrey (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8026-8020)
- Mario Buscemi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2123-5434)
- Wilson M. Namasaka
- Vincent Pelgrims (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5053-3847)
- Olivier Deligny (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6863-6572)
- Chloé Gaudu (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2803-4873)
- Yago Lema-Capeans
- Carmen Merx
- Mohsen Pourmohammad Shahvar
- Lukas Gülzow (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0620-3525)
- Simon Strähnz
- Shayoni Panja
- Sergio Cabana-Freire
- Nikolas Denner
- Beatriz de Errico (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0002-4212-0708)
- João Vítor Reginatto Akim (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8179-9747)
- Fedor Tairli
- Alex Reuzki
- Tim Fehler
- Eric William Mayotte (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2618-9166)
- P. O. Mazur (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4076-6732)
- M. Unger (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7651-0272)
- J. Chudoba (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6425-2579)
- Andreas Weindl (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4929-6191)
- Markus Roth (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9041-1414)
- A. De Roeck (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3234-6634)
- Danelise de Oliveira Franco (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8435-7730)
- Brian Wundheiler (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3121-7037)
- Gioacchino Alex Anastasi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0824-5283)
- José Ochoa (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1395-4159)
- Teresa Bister (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4005-0857)
- Tiina Suomijärvi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1422-258X)
- Marko Zavrtanik (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5606-6912)
- K.‐H. Kampert (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2805-0195)
- Jose Sanabria Gomez (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4217-3212)
- B. Garćıa (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0919-2734)
- Marcus Niechciol (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6823-8056)
- Leonel Morejón (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1494-2624)
- J. Brack (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4096-2063)
- Igor Vaiman (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8255-3631)
- Juan Carlos D'Olivo
- Markus Risse
- Juan Pallotta
- Alejandro Almela
- Humberto Ibarguen Salazar
- Rita Cassia dos Anjos
- Analisa Mariazzi
- Sergio J Sciutto
- Norbert Kunka
- Luca Deval
- Marvin Gottowik
- Stanislav Michal
- Johannes Blümer
- Jelena Köhler
- Antonino Del Popolo
- Dave Nitz
- Danilo Zavrtanik (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4596-1521)
- Ralph Engel
- Fernando Gollan
- Luis Miguel Domingues Mendes
- Edivaldo Moura Santos
- Isabelle Lhenry-Yvon
- Federico Andrés Sánchez
- Carlos Hojvat
- Qader Dorosti (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9711-0609)
- Alberto Etchegoyen
- Bernardo Tomé
- Felix Riehn
- Charles Timmermans
- Paul Filip
- A. Filipčič (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5671-1555)
- Carlos J. Todero Peixoto (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3669-8212)
- Josina Schulte
- Eva Santos
- Michael Prouza
- Margita Kubátová
- Melanie Weitz (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-9010-9610)
- A. A. Watson
- Rogerio M. de Almeida
- Glennys R. Farrar
- Martina Boháčová
- R. Sarmento (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5018-5467)
- Pavel Horváth (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6710-5339)
- G. Marsella (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3152-8874)
- Nataliia Borodai (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1864-937X)
- Kévin Almeida Cheminant (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6352-5339)
- Miroslav Pech
- Martin Schimassek (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4295-7719)
- H. Schieler (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2637-4778)
- Jorge Rubén Rodriguez Rojo
- Daniele Martello
- Florian Lukas Briechle
- Samo Stanič (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3344-8381)
- Marcelo Augusto Leigui de Oliveira
- Giorgio Matthiae
- Marcos Cerda
- Piera Luisa Ghia
- P. Gabriel Brichetto Orchera
- Gaetano Salina
- Ruben Squartini
- Manuel Platino
- Michael Schimp (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4295-7719)
- Brian Fick
- Alan Fuster
- Vladimír Novotný
- Petr Janeček (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3501-7163)
- Virginia Binet
- Diego Ravignani
- Rodrigo Pelayo (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1062-5595)
- Marina Scornavacche
- Alexander Menshikov
- C. Dobrigkeit
- Armando di Matteo
- Jörg Hörandel
- Juan Carlos Arteaga Velázquez
- Ioana Codrina Maris
- Indira D. Vergara Quispe
- Ricardo Sato
- Paul Sommers
- Cainã Oliveira
- Max Büsken
- Luis A. Anchordoqui (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1463-7136)
- Gualberto Avila
- A. Săftoiu (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7903-6510)
- L. Lopes (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8571-0033)
- Patrick Stassi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5584-8410)
- Abha Khakurdikar (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4857-5255)
- Sonja Mayotte (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8957-8033)
- Fabian Gobbi
- Jonathan Biteau
- Baobiao Yue
- Paolo Privitera
- Diego Correia dos Santos
- Lorenzo Apollonio (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-5625-5893)
- Srijan Sehgal
- Joao dos Anjos
- Diego Melo
- Vlastimil Jílek (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5774-7285)
- Veronika Vašíčková
- Alexandra Fernandes (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9187-4007)
- Ugo GIACCARI
- Khoa Nguyen
- J. Rautenberg
- Luiz Augusto Pereira
- Sara Martinelli
- Cristina Galea
- Geraldina Golup
- Matteo Conte
- Jaime de Oliveira
- Jannis Pawlowsky
- Juan Manuel Figueira
- Federico Campuzano
- Frederik Krieger
- Sven Querchfeld
- Jacco Vink
- Matthias Kleifges
- Luciana Andrade Dourado
- Petr Schovánek (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5344-7645)
- Tomáš Fodran (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-9529-0853)
- Matias Jorge Tueros (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1570-1419)
- G. Cataldi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8066-7718)
- Megha Mogarkar
- Jhansi Bhavani Vuta
- Eric-Teunis de Boone
- Mohamed Ismaiel
- Karolina Syrokvas
- Matteo Tambone
- Pim van Dillen
Publication Details
- Published
- 2025-09-23
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.22323/1.501.0292
- Primary Topic
- Astrophysics and Cosmic Phenomena
- Type
- article
- Field-Weighted Citation Impact
- 0.00
Funders
- National Science Foundation
- U.S. Department of Energy
- Grainger Foundation
- Strong
- Ministerul Cercetării, Inovării şi Digitalizării
- European Commission
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas
- Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno Dejavnost RS
- Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación
- Unitatea Executiva pentru Finantarea Invatamantului Superior, a Cercetarii, Dezvoltarii si Inovarii
- Xunta de Galicia
- Junta de Andalucía
- Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
- Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica
- European Regional Development Fund
- Agencia Estatal de Investigación