Impact of SPRING, an Integrated Mother–Child Focused Psychosocial Home-visiting Intervention, on Postpartum Depression in Rural India: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial

The lack of measurable impact in our study highlights two key considerations. First, integrated mother-child psychosocial interventions may require more targeted strategies to address depressive symptoms and reduce PPD. Second, implementation challenges, such as coverage and uptake, likely influence effectiveness. Notably, at least one in eight mothers in our study experienced PPD at 12 months post-partum, aligning with other Indian studies. This persistent burden, alongside unmet mental health needs, emphasizes the urgency for future integrated mother-child interventions to include PPD-specific components and critically monitor implementation, especially in rural settings.