Navigating per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in organic waste streams: Sources, challenges and implications for circular economy recycling – A mini-review

Waste management systems face considerable environmental and public health challenges as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) emerge as major contaminants. These persistent chemicals have been detected in various waste streams, including industrial effluents, municipal solid waste, and wastewater. This article aims to identify where PFAS have been detected in biogenic waste streams, their implications for waste treatment, and highlight areas where data gaps exist and measurement methods are lacking. The literature reviewed suggests that most biological treatment methods used in waste treatment are ineffective in removing PFAS, with incineration emerging as the only reliable means of degradation. Conventional treatments do not adequately remove PFAS, so they persist in most recycled organic end products and are used in agriculture, such as compost and biosolids. PFAS re-enter the cycle and potentially contaminate agricultural land, raising questions about the sustainability and safety of recycling products and materials containing PFAS. However, data on their presence in biowaste, where food contact materials (FCMs) have been identified as a major source of PFAS, remain limited or non-existent. This knowledge gap is of particular interest given the widespread use of PFAS in food packaging and cookware. These findings highlight the need for regulatory action to address the PFAS contamination. Key recommendations include: (1) the implementation of restrictions on the use of PFAS in products with high consumer contact, especially FCMs, (2) the development of closed-loop recycling systems, and (3) the adoption of standardised analytical methods for the detection of PFAS in different waste streams and environmental matrices.