Real-time 3D scene reconstruction of ancient opera stage architectural heritage using a handheld SLAM laser scanner: a case study of the Lixel L2 Pro

Virtual reconstruction of 3D scenes has become a crucial method for preserving, restoring, and presenting architectural cultural heritage. Although traditional terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) systems offer high precision, they face limitations in complex historical environments due to their bulk, cost, and setup complexity. This study explores the application of a handheld SLAM-based laser scanner (Lixel L2 Pro) in conjunction with the LixelStudio processing platform for rapid 3D virtual reconstruction of architectural heritage. Two case studies were conducted: independent scanning of the Aohu Village opera stage and map-fusion scanning of the Chenghuang Temple opera stage, both located in Ninghai, China. Results show that the L2 Pro enables high-resolution point cloud acquisition and real-time coloring, successfully capturing complex architectural details and ambiguous structures. Minor artifacts (“shadows”) caused by human movement were observed in the map fusion mode, highlighting SLAM’s sensitivity to dynamic environments. Overall, the SLAM-based handheld workflow offers efficiency, flexibility, and sufficient accuracy for documenting medium-sized heritage sites. Future improvements include dynamic object filtering, multi-device SLAM collaboration, and structural model optimization.