Toward smart cities: A systematic literature review of digital collaboration among institutions

This study systematically reviews the literature on institutional digital collaboration in smart city initiatives to examine (1) the most prevalent collaboration models, (2) the enabling and limiting factors shaping these collaborations, and (3) their contributions to innovation and governance improvement. Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we systematically searched the Scopus and PubMed databases for peer-reviewed studies published between 2015 and 2025 on inter-institutional digital collaboration in smart-city contexts; 30 studies met the inclusion criteria and were critically appraised using the CASP checklist. Public–Private Partnerships (PPP) were most frequent (10/30), followed by Quadruple Helix (9/30), Open Data Ecosystems (6/30), Smart Governance (4/30), Urban Living Labs (2/30), and Triple Helix (1/30). Because several studies employed more than one model, categories were coded non-exclusively. Key enablers included advanced digital technologies (IoT, AI, big data), strong political and legal support, and active multi-stakeholder engagement. Conversely, fragmented governance structures, resource constraints, and technical challenges, especially interoperability and privacy concerns, were the most significant barriers. Outcomes primarily comprised conceptual and implementation frameworks (60%), followed by prototypes (20%) and policy insights (20%). The findings highlight a shift from traditional PPPs to more inclusive and data-driven collaboration frameworks, reinforcing the dual role of these partnerships in advancing urban innovation and strengthening governance capacity. Future research should prioritize empirical and longitudinal evaluations to assess the scalability and long-term impact of collaborative models in diverse urban contexts.