Spatial analysis of congenital heart disease in São Paulo State, Brazil 2012-2022: associations with air pollution, maternal factors and social vulnerability

Congenital Heart Disease (CHD) is a major cause of neonatal and infant morbidity and mortality and it has a multifactorial aetiology. This study aimed to analyse the spatial association between exposure to air pollutants during the first trimester of pregnancy, social vulnerability, and maternal factors with the occurrence of CHD between 2012 and 2022 in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Data were obtained from the live birth information system for maternal outcomes and characteristics, the São Paulo social vulnerability index as a contextual indicator, and concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), Carbon Monoxide (CO) and ozone, estimated using the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS-EAC4) reanalysis dataset of environmental exposure. A Bayesian hierarchical spatial model with a Besag-York- Mollié 2 (BYM2) specification was applied using the INLA approach. The results showed that exposure to PM2.5 was significantly associated with an increased risk of CHD (RR = 1.022; 95% CrI: 1.005-1.040), as were advanced maternal age (>35 years) (RR = 1.649; 95% CrI: 1.587-1.715) and inadequate prenatal care (RR = 1.112; 95% CrI: 1.070-1.155). Conversely, municipalities classified as having medium (RR = 0.757; 95% CrI: 0.641-0.894) and high social vulnerability (RR = 0.643; 95% CrI: 0.492-0.844) showed a significantly lower adjusted risk compared to those with low vulnerability. No significant associations were identified for CO or ozone. Spatial analysis revealed persistently high risks in municipalities within the São Paulo Metropolitan Region, even after adjusting for environmental and socio-demographic variables, highlighting population profiles and priority areas for public health surveillance and targeted interventions.