An integrative review of land subsidence dynamics and monitoring in Nigeria

Land subsidence is a growing environmental issue in Nigeria, particularly in low-lying, densely populated regions such as Lagos and the Niger Delta. Land subsidence is primarily driven by human activities, including excessive groundwater extraction, oil and gas exploitation, and mining, all of which are intensifying due to rapid urbanization and resource demand. The impacts of land subsidence include infrastructure damage, increased flood risks, and environmental degradation. Despite its severity, public awareness of this issue remains limited, and it receives insufficient policy attention. To address these issues, this study synthesizes existing knowledge on land subsidence in Nigeria by analyzing its causes, impacts, and the effectiveness of monitoring methods. It also identifies knowledge gaps and proposes evidence-based strategies for improved subsidence assessment and management across Nigeria’s diverse geological regions. To achieve these objectives, this study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining a structured literature review with geospatial analysis. Scientific databases, including Web of Science and Scopus, were searched using targeted keywords to retrieve relevant studies. Ground-based GPS data, processed by the Nevada Geodetic Laboratory, were analyzed to derive vertical land motion. In addition, Sentinel-1 SAR data (2015–2023) were analyzed using the Parallel Small Baseline Subset Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (P-SBAS-InSAR) technique via the European Space Agency (ESA)’s Geohazards Exploitation Platform. The findings reveal that land subsidence is widespread yet spatially variable across Nigeria. Both GPS and InSAR datasets confirm active vertical displacement, with significant subsidence rates in urban areas like Lagos. While human-induced activities, particularly groundwater extraction, are the main causes of land subsidence, uncertainties remain regarding the extent to which each factor contributes. Although various studies have confirmed the presence of land subsidence in Nigeria, most have focused on the southern regions, especially Lagos and the Niger Delta. The northern region has received little or no attention despite being covered by available InSAR data. This uneven distribution of research limits a full understanding of subsidence across the country. Based on the findings of this study, it is necessary to promote sustainable groundwater management, strengthen regulatory measures, and raise public awareness. Together with continued scientific studies, these efforts can reduce subsidence-induced damage to infrastructure and help maintain environmental stability in areas at risk. Encouraging targeted geospatial analysis, greater use of satellite data, and improved ground-based monitoring will also support effective subsidence management across Nigeria.