The Multi-Layered Structure of Surveillance in Sports: Theoretical Insights from the Panopticon, Synopticon, and Banopticon

This study aims to theoretically analyze the surveillance mechanisms operating within modern sports organizations based on Michel Foucault’s theory of disciplinary power. Focusing on Foucault's concept of the Panopticon, the study extends the framework to include the Synopticon-where the many observe the few—and the Banopticon, which entails the selection and exclusion of particular groups. Through a comprehensive literature review, the study explores how these three surveillance models overlap and function in a complementary manner within sports contexts, such as training environments, media spaces, and institutional regulatory systems. The analysis revealed that, within training environments, athletes internalize the gaze of their coaches, placing them within a Panoptic structure where self-surveillance occurs. Outside the field, athletes are subjected to Synoptic surveillance through the gaze of the media and fans. Furthermore, institutional mechanisms such as doping control and disciplinary sanctions exhibit characteristics of the Banopticon, in which “normal” and “abnormal” athletes are categorized and regulated. These surveillance systems do not operate independently but rather interlock in a multilayered structure, reconstructing the dynamics of power within sports organizations.<br/> By applying the concept of surveillance power to the realm of sports, this study goes beyond simplistic models of control or leadership. It reexamines the athlete’s subjectivity, ethical agency, and the structural integrity of sports organizations. Ultimately, this research provides a critical perspective on sports power structures and offers theoretical insights for athlete protection, leadership development, and institutional reform.