Lifecycle, toxicology, and exposure pathways of functional nanomaterials in water treatment: Implications for environmental and human Health

Water pollution from emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals, heavy metals, and microplastics poses significant environmental and health risks. Conventional treatment methods often fail to effectively remove these pollutants, prompting the use of nanomaterials in wastewater treatment. Functional nanomaterials, including metal-based nanoparticles (e.g. TiO₂, ZnO, Fe₃O₄), carbon-based structures (eg, graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes), and polymeric nanocomposites, exhibit high adsorption, catalytic degradation, and filtration capabilities. However, concerns over their lifecycle fate, toxicity, and environmental persistence remain largely unaddressed. His review explores the production, application, and disposal of nanomaterials, highlighting their environmental impact and post-treatment risks such as bioaccumulation and ecosystem disruption. Additionally, it examines toxicity mechanisms, human and ecological exposure pathways, and end regulatory challenges in ensuring the safe deployment of nanotechnology in water treatment. Suitable solutions, including green synthesis, lifecycle assessments, and regulatory frameworks, are discussed to mitigate potential risks. Future research should prioritize long-term toxicity studies, improved monitoring strategies, and circular economic approaches to enhance nanomaterial sustainability. Addressing these challenges is essential to harness nanotechnology’s full potential while ensuring environmental and human safety in wastewater treatment.