UAV-based agricultural spraying: A study on spiral movements and pesticide optimization

• Drone-based spiral flights boosted spraying efficiency by 85 % and cut pesticide waste by 15 %, aiding sustainability. • Increasing spirals from 2 to 6 boosts spray by 51 %, reaching 0.64 L/m² vs 0.42, covering trees more efficiently. • Volumetric classification allowed tailored spraying protocols per tree group and enabled optimized spiral flight strategies. • Chemical use lowered and spraying time reduced by 20 %, enabling eco-friendly, efficient, and sustainable farming. • Reducing spraying time and optimizing pesticide use foster sustainable, eco-friendly agricultural practices. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have become an essential component of precision agriculture, providing enhanced accuracy and operational efficiency in pesticide application. This study presents an innovative spraying protocol that integrates spiral flight trajectories with volumetric classification of olive trees, enhancing operational performance while reducing environmental impact. Using high-resolution UAV imagery in conjunction with advanced image processing, trees were categorized into small, medium, and large canopy-volume classes. For each group, optimized spiral patterns with predefined turn counts and flight altitudes were assigned to achieve uniform droplet deposition across complex canopy structures. Field experiments conducted in the Hekimhan district of Malatya, Türkiye, demonstrated an 85 % improvement in spraying efficiency, a 15 % reduction in chemical usage, and a 20 % decrease in operational time compared with conventional methods. The proposed approach significantly improved targeting precision and minimized off-target drift. These results clearly indicate that the proposed protocol is scalable, environmentally sustainable, and operationally efficient for pesticide application in orchards and other tree-based agricultural systems.This approach demonstrates considerable potential for widespread adoption in precision agriculture, offering a replicable and adaptable framework for enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of pesticide application in diverse orchard systems.