Dietary water footprint of most-consumed foods: a national consumption-based assessment

Purpose Shifts in national dietary patterns can significantly influence a country’s water footprint (WF), particularly in water-stressed regions like South Korea. This study evaluates how changes in Korean food consumption between 2008 and 2023 have altered the national dietary WF, using 55 of the most-consumed food items to identify demographic and regional “hot spots” of rising water use and to provide an empirical basis for sustainable food and water policy. Design/methodology/approach A time-series, consumption-based quantitative analysis was conducted using food consumption data from the Korea Health Industry Development Institute. Daily WF for 55 high-consumption food items was calculated by multiplying per capita daily intake by food-specific WF coefficients, derived primarily from domestic literature and supplemented with global datasets where necessary. The analysis spans 2008 to 2023 and is stratified by urban scale, gender and age group to examine group-level differences in food-related water use. Findings Despite only modest growth in overall food intake, the total dietary WF increased by approximately 56.7%. This rise was driven primarily by a decrease in rice consumption and a sharp increase in water-intensive animal proteins. Small- and medium-sized cities experienced the largest relative increase (∼127.7%), men consistently exceeded women in WF and the 30–49 age cohort recorded the largest absolute gain. Research limitations/implications This study acknowledges several limitations. First, we utilized global food WF coefficients based on the typical diet. This approach does not accurately reflect the unique water consumption patterns in South Korea. Consequently, it is vital to develop a WF assessment that is tailored to South Korea’s distinct domestic conditions, cultural practices and dietary preferences. Designing a new WF model that considers the local environment and the food culture of South Korea will yield more precise and applicable results. Second, while this study analysed 16 of the top 30 most consumed foods in 2020 based on consistent data available from 2010 to 2020, the selected foods may not fully represent the overall consumption patterns of South Koreans. To capture a more comprehensive view of water consumption and food intake throughout the country, it is essential to establish a WF for specific Korean foods, such as kimchi, rice cakes, soju and other local delicacies. By developing WFs for all 30 highly consumed food items each year, we can gain an accurate understanding of the water usage associated with the Korean diet. Practical implications The results urge embedding WF metrics into Korean dietary guidelines, food-labelling schemes and institutional catering programmes, supported by a high-resolution national WF database, a real-time reporting platform and consumer awareness campaigns steering choices towards lower-WF foods. Originality/value This study is the first to present a demographically segmented, time-series assessment of Korea’s dietary WF. It connects empirical evidence with sustainability policy by showing the need for localised WF metrics and tailored interventions. These findings offer actionable insights for aligning national food systems with sustainable water use and integrated resource management.