Constrained yet strategic linguistic investment: Iranian English learners navigating identities, ideologies and capital forms amid religious nationalism

Purpose This study aims to examine how Iranian English learners perceive and navigate English education constraints imposed by religious-nationalist policies. Design/methodology/approach This study used a phenomenological approach, combining semistructured interviews, classroom observations and digital ethnography to explore the perceptions and navigation of English education constraints among 20 adolescent and adult learners. Their dual exposure to private and public educational settings offered rich lived experiences across contexts. Data analysis applied Darvin and Norton’s (2015) investment model, integrating identities, ideologies and capital forms. Findings The learners demonstrated significantly varying perceptions and strategic navigation of constraints (e.g. compartmentalization, pragmatic compliance and covert resistance) based on their age, gender and educational/occupational backgrounds, revealing the stratified nature of linguistic investment. They also exercised dynamic agency in negotiating their identities and accumulating capital within Iran’s restrictive religious-nationalist framework. Research limitations/implications The findings urge policymakers to address mismatches between ideological curricula and global linguistic demands. Educators should adopt communicative pedagogies that empower learners while navigating constraints. This study also highlights digital tools as vital for autonomous learning in restrictive settings, suggesting institutional support for blended learning. Originality/value This study bridges a critical gap in investment theory by examining Iran’s religious-nationalist context, which uniquely shapes English education. It also reveals how digital spaces facilitate covert investment, capital accumulation and identity negotiation in authoritarian educational systems.