Assessing Travel-Time Accessibility to Urban Green Spaces in Car-Dependent Cities: Evidence from Erbil and Sulaimaniyah, Kurdistan Region of Iraq

Urban green spaces (UGS) provide numerous benefits, but challenges in availability and accessibility often limit their full potential. This study assesses equity and disparities in car-based accessibility to Large Urban Green Spaces (LUGS > 8 ha) in the rapidly growing cities of Sulaimaniyah and Erbil in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Road network accessibility was analyzed using OpenRouteService (ORS) and calibrated with real-time Google Maps data to improve accuracy. Google Earth Engine (GEE) was used for NDVI-based vegetation mapping and LUGS quality assessment. Isochrones based on 5, 10, and 15 min from LUGS entrances were generated to measure served areas and population coverage at citywide and zonal levels. The findings reveal notable spatial inequities in both cities, with disparities especially evident at shorter travel times. Accessibility declines from central to outer zones. Azadi Park and Sami Abdulrahman Park emerged as key service hubs. The number of LUGS active entrances, spatial distribution, and population density are among the key determinants of car accessibility to LUGS. The study highlighted the spatial-temporal suggestion for long- and short-term implementation, with opportunities for enhancement.