The evolution of mastery learning: Challenges, technologies, and the AI journey leading to the intelligent tutoring system DARTS

Bloom's theory of Mastery Learning (1968) and his "2 Sigma Problem" study (1984) revealed that oneon-one tutoring can produce learning outcomes two standard deviations above conventional instruction (Bloom, 1968(Bloom, , 1984)).Despite its proven effectiveness, this model remains difficult to scale due to the cost and complexity of delivering personalized instruction (Guskey, 2007).The emergence of artificial intelligence offers the potential to replicate adaptive, responsive feedback traditionally delivered by human tutors (VanLehn, 2011;Ma, Adesope, Nesbit, & Liu, 2014).Concurrently, the ubiquity of mobile phones strengthens their potential to facilitate scalable AI-driven learning beyond fixed classroom settings (Traxler, 2007;Kukulska-Hulme, 2009).This paper investigates whether DARTS, an AI-driven Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) delivered via mobile phones, can effectively replicate the learning benefits of oneon-one tutoring outlined in Bloom's 2 Sigma effect.It further explores DARTS' integration of real-time classroom interaction and out-of-class personalized tutoring, assessing its potential as a scalable solution for diverse and resource-constrained educational environments.Developed by the author, DARTS (Dynamic Academic Response and Tutoring System) addresses this challenge by combining AI, mobile interactivity, and SMS-based architecture to bridge Bloom's theoretical promise with real-world educational practice.While initial results are promising, limitations include dependency on consistent student-generated data and institutional readiness for AI adoption in education (Caldwell, 2007;Donker, Plomp, & Kuiper, 2009).Future research will focus on advancing DARTS into a long-term, personalized academic companion that supports learners throughout their educational journey, enhancing both retention and performance.This paper is the first in a three-part series.It focuses on the theoretical foundation and pedagogical rationale behind DARTS, while future installments address its system design and classroom implementation.