The evolution of plant breeding: Genetic foundations and future directions

Plant breeding has progressed from empirical selection to precision design powered by quantitative genetics, multi‑omics, artificial intelligence, and genome editing. This review traces the historical arc—from Mendelian inheritance and early quantitative theory to molecular markers, genome‑wide association studies (GWAS), genomic selection (GS), and pangenomes—highlighting how foundational genetic principles have been repeatedly retooled by new technologies. We synthesize recent advances in speed breeding, doubled haploids and haploid induction, high‑throughput phenotyping, and CRISPR‑based base/prime editing, and we examine emerging paradigms such as de novo domestication and epigenetic breeding. We conclude with a forward look at systems‑level breeding that integrates genotype-phenotype-environment (G×P×E) modeling, climate resilience, nutrition, and equity‑centered deployment. Throughout, we emphasize recent literature (2023-2025) and identify research priorities to accelerate genetic gain while safeguarding biodiversity and societal trust.