Long-term ecotoxicological effects of benzophenone-3 on the marine invertebrate, Crepidula onyx: Impacts on bioaccumulation, reproduction, shell integrity, condition indexes, and embryonic and larval development

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3), a widely used UV filter in personal care products, is recognized as an emerging endocrine disruptor, particularly impacting marine organisms. This study investigates BP-3's long-term effects on marine invertebrates, using the slipper limpet Crepidula onyx as a model species, focusing on bioaccumulation and reproductive and developmental impacts. Crepidula onyx was exposed to BP-3 concentrations of 1, 10, and 100 μg/L, reflecting realistic environmental levels, throughout their life cycle. Transcriptomic analyses explored the mechanisms affecting offspring. BP-3 exposure led to significant bioaccumulation, with metabolites BP-1 and BP-8 detected. BP-3 delayed sexual development, reduced fecundity, and altered condition indexes. Structural changes were observed in gonadal and gill tissues, and shell integrity was compromised, showing reduced thickness and fracture force. Embryonic and larval abnormalities were prevalent. Significant changes in gene expression related to nucleic acid metabolism and synthesis suggest mechanisms leading to developmental abnormalities. These results highlight potential threats posed to marine invertebrates by BP-3, emphasizing the urgent need for regulatory reassessment of BP-3 use. The study calls for further research into BP-3's molecular toxicity and ecological impacts, underscoring the necessity for updated environmental policies to protect marine ecosystems.