Electrochemical catalysts for nitrogen reduction: progress, challenges, and sustainable solutions

Electrochemical nitrogen reduction (NR) is a promising pathway for sustainable ammonia (NH3) production, crucial for reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating climate change. Various methods and advanced materials have been used to accelerate the NR reaction rate. However, the long-term sustainability and economic feasibility of many catalytic materials remain insufficiently studied. This review examines the roles of various catalysts, including metal-based, homogeneous, and heterogeneous catalysts, in facilitating NR reactions. The integration of advanced materials, such as metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and photocatalytic nanoparticles, is discussed for their potential to enhance catalytic efficiency. The review highlights the importance of life cycle assessment (LCA) and techno-economic analysis (TEA) in evaluating the environmental and economic feasibility of NR processes. It also addresses the challenges and opportunities associated with green synthesis methods and large-scale application of MOFs. Future directions emphasise the need for interdisciplinary research, artificial intelligence (AI) advancements, and innovative energy storage solutions. This comprehensive analysis aims to guide the development of efficient, scalable, and sustainable NR technologies for a carbon–neutral future.