Non-Target Effects of Beta-Cypermethrin on Baryscapus dioryctriae and Ecological Risk Assessment

Beta-cypermethrin is widely applied in Korean pine (<i>Pinus koraiensis</i> Siebold & Zucc.) seed orchards to control cone- and seed-infesting moths (e.g., <i>Dioryctria</i> spp.), yet its Wsublethal risks to non-target beneficial arthropods remain insufficiently characterized. Here, we systematically evaluated the ecological and physiological consequences of beta-cypermethrin exposure on the key parasitoid wasp <i>Baryscapus dioryctriae</i> Yang & Song, an important biological control agent in <i>P. koraiensis</i> forests. Adult wasps were exposed to LC₃₀ and LC₅₀ residue concentrations, and sublethal effects were quantified across reproductive, developmental, and biochemical endpoints over two generations. Sublethal exposure resulted in significant reductions in parasitism rates and offspring emergence, as well as altered developmental durations and adult longevity in both F₀ and F₁ generations. Enzymatic assays revealed time-dependent activation of detoxification enzymes (GST, CarE, AChE) alongside suppression of antioxidant defenses (CAT strongly; SOD early with partial recovery; POD biphasic), consistent with a sustained oxidative-stress burden. LC-MS/MS residue analysis further confirmed the accumulation and slow clearance of both beta-cypermethrin and its metabolite 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (PBA) within parasitoid tissues. These findings collectively demonstrate that even non-lethal concentrations of beta-cypermethrin can undermine the ecological fitness and persistence of <i>B. dioryctriae</i>, posing a tangible threat to the sustainability of biological control services. To safeguard beneficial parasitoids, integrated pest management strategies must incorporate selective insecticide use and exposure mitigation, especially in forest habitats where biological control is indispensable.