Privacy‐preserving labeling‐free occupancy counting sensor based on ToF camera and clustering

Abstract Occupancy detection systems are crucial for optimizing energy efficiency in smart cities and buildings but often face privacy and data dependency challenges. YOLO (you only look once), a widely used real‐time detection framework, relies on identifiable image data and labeled datasets. This study proposes a privacy‐preserving, labeling‐free occupancy sensor using a time‐of‐flight (ToF) camera, and a clustering algorithm. Positioned above doorways, the ToF camera captures depth data that inherently protect privacy by avoiding identifiable information. Using the mean shift clustering algorithm, it performs real‐time detection and tracking without labeled data, generating bounding boxes for movement analysis. Unlike traditional ToF‐based or unsupervised methods, the proposed system adapts dynamically to varying occupant behaviors and environmental conditions for robust real‐time detection. Experimental results show that the proposed method achieves over 90% accuracy in standard single‐entry and exit scenarios. By addressing existing limitations, it offers a data‐efficient, privacy‐sensitive solution for building digital twins in energy optimization and resource management.