Less than citizens: varieties of workplace marginalization of immigrants to the United States

Abstract Existing studies highlight numerous barriers immigrants encounter upon arrival and the economic benefits of citizenship acquisition in reducing these barriers to integration at their destinations. While researchers have extensively studied native-immigrant economic disparities and the lower monetary returns to immigrants’ education, limited knowledge exists about the distinct roles natives and immigrants play in nationwide labor markets and the principles underlying these roles. I investigate how immigrants may experience marginalization in contemporary US labor markets despite their employment participation. I propose that this marginalization may be reflected in occupational trait differentials across moral, mechanistic, and animalistic dimensions within citizenship hierarchies. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of three recent nationally representative US samples provide consistent evidence that citizenship ladders contribute to stratification in workers’ occupational traits across each marginalization dimension, leading to diverging trajectories. Beyond the prominent non-monetary trait gaps between citizens and non-citizens, the results reveal persistent disparities tied to birthright and naturalized citizenship statuses, particularly for Asian and Hispanic immigrants. These trait differentials help to segment occupational roles based on citizenship hierarchies, potentially limiting immigrants’ decision-making freedom and workplace influence, and reducing access to positions emphasizing moral judgment or expressive communication skills. The conclusion discusses broader theoretical, empirical, and policy implications.