Marine biofouling in Indonesian tropical waters: a comprehensive review of taxonomic diversity and successional dynamics

Biofouling poses significant ecological and operational challenges in marine environments, particularly across Indonesia's diverse tropical waters. It increases hydrodynamic drag on vessels, leading to greater fuel consumption and elevated operational costs. This review synthesizes both recent and historical studies to examine the taxonomic and functional diversity of marine biofouling organisms in Indonesian waters. It highlights key fouling groups - bacteria, diatoms, barnacles, bivalves, polychaetes, tunicates, hydrozoans, bryozoans, macroalgae, and sponges - and describes their roles in biofilm formation, macro fouler settlement, and successional development. The paper also explores spatial differences between western and eastern regions, outlining how environmental and human-driven factors influence colonization and community dynamics. Successional trends from early biofilms to climax stages are discussed in relation to marine infrastructure management and antifouling strategies. By integrating findings across the archipelago, this review provides foundational insight for region-specific mitigation efforts and supports the development of sustainable maritime operations in tropical coastal ecosystems.