Unveiling the Xianbei cavalry: a multidisciplinary approach to restore and analyse the first horse-cavalry armour set in China

Between the third and sixth centuries AD (Anno Domini), the Xianbei emerged as a dominant nomadic power in the Eastern Eurasian Steppe, distinguished by their exceptional equestrian culture and the pivotal role of cavalry in warfare. Despite their historical significance, detailed knowledge of their cavalry's weaponry and equipment-particularly armour-remains fragmentary. As a critical element of military technology, armour offers valuable insights into ancient combat strategies and cultural practices. However, research on early Chinese cavalry armour has been constrained by limited textual records and the scarcity of well-preserved archaeological specimens. This study presents a systematic reconstruction of the earliest known set of horse-cavalry armour, excavated from the Lamadong Cemetery in Beipiao City, Liaoning Province, China. By combining traditional archaeological methods with advanced analytical techniques-including microscopic morphological analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and palaeoproteomics-we successfully restored the armour's physical structure and determined its material composition. This 1600-year-old nomadic cavalry equipment not only reveals Xianbei's advanced manufacturing techniques but also provides the first evidence of sheep-derived materials in ancient armour production. Our findings underscore the importance of multidisciplinary approaches in archaeological research, demonstrating how palaeoproteomics, in particular, can offer novel perspectives on material sourcing and technological practices in antiquity.