Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electrified Transportation: A Review of Modeling, Degradation, Thermal Management, and Safety

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become the cornerstone of modern energy storage, powering applications from consumer electronics to electric vehicles and grid systems. Their high energy density, long cycle life, and reliability have enabled wide-scale adoption. However, challenges related to thermal management, degradation, and safety remain persistent obstacles. This review presents a detailed synthesis of lithium-ion battery technologies, encompassing modeling approaches, thermal behavior, aging mechanisms, and safety concerns such as internal short circuits. Various modeling strategies are examined—electrochemical, mathematical, and equivalent circuit models—that facilitate estimation of internal battery states like State of Charge (SOC) and State of Health (SOH). Temperature’s impact on battery performance is analyzed through studies on heat generation, distribution, and management across different operating conditions. Degradation phenomena such as solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation and lithium plating are discussed in the context of battery aging, especially for vehicle applications. Additionally, the effects of ambient temperature and battery aging on electric and hybrid vehicle performance are assessed, along with strategies for optimizing battery pack size to enhance fuel economy. By integrating current findings, this review aims to inform future developments in battery design, management, and safety, driving the evolution of LIB technologies toward greater efficiency, durability, and sustainability