Characterization of Bitter Off-Taste Stimuli in Sunflower Press Cake Using the Sensomics Approach

The Sensomics approach, including activity-guided fractionation and taste dilution analysis, was employed to identify the key compounds responsible for the bitter off-taste of sunflower press cake. A combination of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry, one-/two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and dose-overthreshold factor calculation led to the identification of 9,12,13-trihydroxyoctadec-10-enoic acid, 9,10,11-trihydroxyoctadec-12-enoic acid, 11,12,13-trihydroxyoctadec-9-enoic acid, (10<i>E</i>,12<i>E</i>)-9-hydroxyoctadeca-10,12-dienoic acid, (10<i>E</i>,12<i>Z</i>)-9-hydroxyoctadeca-10,12-dienoic acid, (9<i>E</i>,11<i>E</i>)-13-hydroxyoctadeca-9,11-dienoic acid, (9<i>Z</i>,11<i>E</i>)-13-hydroxyoctadeca-9,11-dienoic acid, (9<i>Z</i>,11<i>E</i>)-13-oxooctadeca-9,11-dienoic acid, α-linolenic acid, linoleic acid, oleic acid, 2-hydroxyoleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, and novel pinocarveol β-d-apiofuranosyl-(1→6)-β-d-(4-<i>O</i>-caffeoyl) glucopyranoside as contributors to the bitterness of sunflower press cake. The findings provide valuable insights into the sensory challenges associated with using sunflower press cake in food applications and offer pathways to enhance its palatability and potential as a sustainable protein alternative to meet future protein demands.