Antibacterial Activity of Ethanolic Extract From <i>Oenothera biennis</i> Seeds Against <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>

ABSTRACT Oenothera biennis L. seeds are known for their diverse biological activities, including potential antibacterial properties. However, limited research has been conducted on their antibacterial mechanisms. This study aimed to evaluate the antibacterial activity of O. biennis seed ethanolic extract (OBE) using Staphylococcus aureus as the tested bacterial strain and its underlying mechanisms. Liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry (LC–MS) analysis identified several bioactive compounds in OBE, including flavonoids, phenolics, alkaloids, and terpenoids, which are known for their antibacterial effects. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of OBE against S. aureus was determined to be 2 mg mL −1 . The study also investigated the antibacterial mechanisms of OBE, and the results showed that OBE disrupted bacterial cell integrity and increased membrane permeability. Additionally, OBE was found to inhibit bacterial respiration and glucose metabolism pathways, particularly the EMP pathway. This study provides evidence of the potential of O. biennis seeds as a natural antibacterial agent for use in the food or pharmaceutical industries.